Note: This article was originally published by the Field Artillery Journal in April 2024. It is republished here on Astrobitica with permission for archival and author portfolio purposes. The views expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of the Field Artillery Journal, the United States Department of Defense, or any other governmental or commercial entity.
High above the Earth’s atmosphere, a constellation of satellites orbit with purpose; their mission is synchronized with the needs of the ground forces below. These celestial sentinels are the eyes, ears, and voice of the Army’s Fire Support units, offering an unparalleled perspective of the battlefield.
A National Security Agency (NSA) Signals Intelligence (SIGINT) satellite intercepts communications that indicate activity and movement along the Western border of Belarus, just 10km from the Suwałki Gap between the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) allies of Poland and Lithuania. They cue an Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR) satellite equipped with a variety of multi-spectrum intelligence gathering systems, including Advanced Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) systems that allow for high-resolution imaging regardless of weather conditions or time of day, penetrating cloud cover, and darkness to deliver clear and actionable intelligence. It monitors a Battalion Tactical Group (BTG) that represents the spearhead of the adversary’s offensive might.
This information is transmitted back to ground forces by a secure downlink and a Command-and-Control (C2) center coordinates a preemptive strike through a backbone of Satellite Communication (SATCOM) radios that can communicate to the other side of the world, relaying voice and data transmission from one orbital satellite to the next in a matter of seconds, securely and without latency.
A Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) satellite provides vital Meteorological Data (MET) to a High Mobility Artillery Rocket System (HIMARS) Battery. They fire a volley of M31 Guided Multiple Launch Rocket Systems (GMLRS) using a constellation of 31 Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites to deliver a strike that neutralizes the BTG’s lead forces, halting the advance in its tracks.
Joint Tactical Ground Station teams (JTAGS) provide early warning to theater commanders of retaliatory ballistic missile attacks through their Space-Based Infrared System (SBIRS) satellites that can detect the infrared heat energy from missile booster exhausts during launch.
An MQ-1C Gray Eagle equipped with Target Location Accuracy (TLA) capabilities that use an Electro-Optical and Infrared (EO/IR) sensor captures a real-time Battle Damage Assessment (BDA). It transmits a video feed of the burning hulks via a reliable and jam-resistant Wideband Global SATCOM (WGS) system to another HIMARS Battery fifty kilometers away. This refined targeting data is used to unleash a second and final volley of M31 GMLRS onto the remaining vehicles and ensures the destruction of the BTG’s most lethal elements.
Space-Based Assets
In a large-scale conflict between peer militaries, the integration of space capabilities into Army Fire Support is not just an advantage but a necessity. Deputy Secretary of Defense Robert O. Work said in September 2015, “We must assume future war on earth will extend into space. We will need to ‘fight through’ attacks on our space assets and capabilities and continue to provide the space support our warfighters need and have come to expect.”
The essence of this integration lies not in the complexity of the technology but in its impact on operational effectiveness and precision. Space capabilities, primarily through satellites, offer an array of services that are crucial for modern military operations. These include satellite communication for uninterrupted communication, Global Positioning System for accurate navigation and targeting, and reconnaissance satellites for intelligence and surveillance.
ISR satellites play a pivotal role in gathering intelligence, conducting surveillance, and performing reconnaissance missions. They provide a comprehensive view of the battlefield, identifying potential targets and assessing the enemy’s movements and capabilities. This information is crucial for planning fire support missions, ensuring that each operation is based on the most accurate and up-to-date intelligence.
SATCOM has redefined the dynamics of battlefield communication, allowing for real-time data relay and uninterrupted connectivity, even in the most remote or hostile environments. This ensures that fire support units remain in constant communication with command centers, receiving timely intelligence and updates. The ability to make informed decisions based on real-time data is invaluable in high-stakes scenarios where every second counts.
GPC, a network of satellites providing geolocation and time information, has revolutionized the way artillery units operate. GPS facilitates pinpoint accuracy in targeting, ensuring that fire support can be delivered effectively and with minimal collateral damage. This precision is not just a matter of efficacy but is also crucial in adhering to the principles of proportionality and necessity in combat.
While the technological intricacies of these space assets might be complex, their integration into Army fire support operations is fundamentally about enhancing the precision, reliability, and decision-making capabilities of the forces on the ground. Understanding those capabilities and the assets that deliver them is crucial to all Army warfighters as these systems and assets enable nearly every mission the Army conducts. “The Army is the largest user of space-enabled systems in the Department of Defense,” then-Army Secretary Ryan McCarthy said in 2020.
In 2024, the use and reliance on space-enabled planning, intelligence, communication, and long-range fire execution are even more pronounced. The Army Space Vision, released in January 2024, outlines a new concentration on integrating friendly joint, coalition, and commercial space capabilities and interdicting adversary space capabilities by delivering fires and effects at echelon to protect friendly space forces. The Army Space Vision urges commanders at all echelons to better understand how the space domain impacts land operations and how land operations can have space domain effects. All space capabilities start and end on the ground.
The Space Domain
The space domain, the ultimate high ground, represents a pivotal warfighting arena. Its strategic importance transcends traditional warfare domains, offering unparalleled advantages in observation, communication, and coordination. But where exactly is space? The Army’s space doctrine, FM 3-14 Army Space Operations, defines space as beginning immediately above the Earth’s surface. However, space has sub-domains or regions within it where different assets reside, and capabilities can be delivered to or from.
FM 3-14 defines Low Earth Orbit (LEO) as immediately above the Earth’s surface and extends to about 1,600 km above the Earth’s surface. Objects in LEO orbit the Earth incredibly fast, completing one lap around the planet in approximately 90 minutes. Here, you will find the International Space Station and the Chinese Tiangong Space Station. Some commercial telecommunication satellites are her,e along with remote sensing or Earth observation satellites.
Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) extends from 1,600 km to 35,400 km, just below Geosynchronous orbits. MEO satellites travel slower than LEO, but faster than GEO. Orbital speeds are determined primarily by altitude above the orbited body. American GPS satellites are found at this altitude along with their Russian and Chinese position, navigation, and timing counterparts GLONASS (Global Navigation Satellite System) and BeiDou, respectively. Some SATCOM networks are found at this altitude as well, making it one of the more crowded orbital altitudes presently used.
GEO or Geosynchronous orbits begin approximately 37,000 km above the Earth. It takes a satellite 24 hours to complete one orbit around the Earth at this altitude. This means that if one were to look up from the ground and see a satellite in GEO, it would appear to never move as it would orbit the Earth at the same speed as the Earth rotates one time on its axis. This makes this altitude ideal for long-term observation by ISR satellites of potential advisories or to perform long-term studies of environmental conditions at a given location. If a satellite sits at a geosynchronous altitude directly over the equator, it is called geostationary.
Highly Elliptical Orbits, or HEOs, are the final orbital altitude, and these have unique orbital characteristics as compared to the others. HEO orbits are not circular, but instead create an oval shape with the Earth at one end of the oval. When the satellite passes close to Earth, it can be as low as 1,000 km above the surface. At its peak, it can be over 40,000 km above the surface. This creates a condition where the satellite has an unusually long dwell time over a specific spot on Earth, enabling extremely long observation times. These can be ideal in very high or very low latitudes on Earth that GEO orbits cannot cover.
The space domain does not end at orbital altitudes, however. In 2022, the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy released the first National Cislunar Science and Technology (S&T) Strategy. Cislunar space is the space above GEO orbits and stretches out to include the Moon. The strategy is set to expand Space Situational Awareness (SSA) in this region of local space and explore options to enhance PNT and SATCOM capabilities here.
Still, this is not the furthest area of local space that could host assets, capabilities, or even people that have direct effects and impacts on the ground. Lagrange Points are gravitationally stable positions around any two bodies in orbit around a common center of mass. The five points exist everywhere in the Solar System and are usually categorized by the two bodies that create them. Earth-Moon defines the five Lagrange Points in the immediate vicinity of the Earth-Moon system that could host many of the same capabilities we have discussed earlier. The first point lies in between the Earth and the Moon and would be included in the Cislunar space mentioned above. The second point would be on the other side of the Moon than Earth. An intelligence satellite placed here could provide an enduring and unobstructed view of the back side of the Moon where the Chinese Queqiao satellite is already located. The third point is on the opposite side of the Earth, 180 degrees ahead, along the orbital path the Moon would take. The fourth and fifth points are 60 degrees ahead and behind, respectively, the Moon along its orbital path. Here, SATCOM stations would always be in the line-of-sight range of the Earth, the Moon, and anything in orbit around either body or the entire Cislunar space in between them.
This domain is increasingly contested, underscoring its criticality. Both China and Russia have demonstrated Anti-Satellite (ASAT) capabilities through tests involving direct-ascent missiles and sophisticated co-orbital technologies.
In 2007, The People’s Republic of China successfully destroyed a defunct Fengyun-1C weather satellite using an anti-satellite missile. This action had severe consequences by creating over 35,000 pieces of orbital debris spread over 3,850 km of low Earth orbit. This debris immediately threatened the International Space Station (ISS) and poses a continuous threat to both civilian and military satellites, potentially compromising essential communication and navigation systems. Moreover, such debris could trigger a cascading effect known as the Kessler Syndrome, where the density of debris in low Earth orbit increases to the point that collisions generate even more debris, further endangering satellites and limiting access to critical orbital paths. The 2017 National Security Strategy is clear on this danger – “The United States considers unfettered access to and freedom to operate in space to be a vital interest. Any harmful interference with or an attack upon critical components of our space architecture that directly affect this vital US interest will be met with a deliberate response at a time, place, manner, and domain of our choosing.”
In 2020, the Russian satellite Cosmos 2543 demonstrated the capability of approaching another satellite in orbit and shooting it down through a sophisticated co-orbital maneuver. The nicknamed “Russian nesting doll satellite” deployed a sub-satellite that then launched its own projective while orbiting at 250 km per hour. This inspector satellite had maneuvered near a U.S. national security satellite before launching the projectile. It was no doubt a show of force that resonated through the halls of the newly created United States Space Force. “This is further evidence of Russia’s continuing effort to develop and test space-based systems, and consistent with the Kremlin’s published military doctrine to employ weapons that hold U.S. and allied space assets at risk.” General John Raymond – the then Space Force Chief of Space Operations.
These ASAT systems threaten global communications and intelligence networks, posing risks not just to military operations but to global security at large.
Training and Preparedness
The proficiency and readiness of Fire Supporters in utilizing space-based assets are paramount. Training programs developed through the U.S. Army Space and Missile Defense Command (SMDC) and the Army Space Training Division (ASTD) include various programs and facilities designed to enhance Soldiers’ capabilities in space-related tasks.
The Army Space Personnel Development Office (ASPDO) integrates Army Space Operations Officers (FA40s) into some Brigade and Division echelon staffs and higher, where their expertise in space capabilities can be crucial in translating what assets and effects may be available to ground maneuver commanders. ASPDO also teaches the Army Basic Space Cadre (ASBC I/II) qualification course where Soldiers, Noncommissioned Officers, Warrant Officers, and Commissioned Officers can earn the Additional Skill Identifier (ASI) 3Y Army Space Enabler. Space Enablers come from a diverse background of Army Military Occupational Specialties (MOS) and, through the Space Cadre course, learn how they can use space assets to affect or enhance their unit’s capabilities.
The National Security Space Institute (NSSI) provides online distance-learning space education and training to Department of Defense (DoD) personnel. Courses range from foundational space knowledge to advanced space operations, aiming to foster a space-savvy warrior class. The Fundamental Applications of Space Targeting (FAST) is one such course of direct benefit to Fire Supporters, Field Artillery Soldiers, and Targeteers.
Finally, Soldiers earning the Personnel Development Skill Identifier (PDSI) S1A: Unit Space Trainer have the background necessary to enable them to be used as organizational trainers in support of space training.
In conclusion, the seamless integration of space-based assets into Army fire Support epitomizes the modern battlefield’s evolution, where mastery of the space domain is not a luxury but a strategic imperative. As conflicts transcend terrestrial bounds, understanding and leveraging space capabilities become crucial for maintaining operational superiority. The future of military operations lies not just in the stars but in the adept orchestration of assets across all domains, ensuring that every mission is underpinned by the unmatched vantage and potential that space provides. The journey ahead demands continuous innovation, vigilance, and a profound understanding of the intricate interplay between space and terrestrial operations, setting the stage for a new era of warfare where the sky is not the limit but merely the beginning.
CPT Alan T. Dugger is the Commander for Headquarters & Headquarters Battery at 1-9th Field Artillery, 2ABCT, 3ID. He currently holds the Additional Skill Identifier of 3Y – Army Space Enabler and has a Master of Science Degree in Space Studies with a concentration in Astronomy. Previously, he served as a Battalion Fire Support Officer, a BDE Assistant Fire Support Officer, and Effects Coordinator in 3ID; a BN S3 at Fort Sill, OK; an M777A2 Platoon Leader and BTRY XO at JBLM, WA; and an MLRS Platoon Leader at Camp Casey, Korea.